关于英语的知识。急!!!(初一) 初一英语基础知识!急!
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如同汉字起源于象形,英语字母表中的每个字母一开始都是描摹某种动物或物体形状的图画,而这些图画最后演变为符号。但这些符号和原先被描摹之实物的形状几无相似之处。谁也不能肯定这些象形字母原先究竟代表什么。我们的解释只能是学者们基于史料作出的有根据的猜测。一般认为希腊字母乃西方所有字母,包括拉丁字母的始祖。其实希腊人的字母又是从腓尼基人那儿借过来的。约在3000年前,在腓尼基字母表中字母A读如aleph,写起来形似字母V,中间再加一横,代表牛头或牛角。以后希腊人将它倒过来写。对于古代腓尼基人来说,牛意味着财富,吃,穿,耕作都少不了它。这也许就是A被列为第一个字母的缘故吧。B b
和A一样,字母B也可以追溯到古代腓尼基。在腓尼基字母表中B叫beth,代表房屋,在希伯来语中B也叫beth,也含房屋之意。字母B原来形似原始社会的两室房屋,小写字母b是后来从大写字母B衍变出来的。在今约旦河西岸有一犹太教,基督教圣地叫Bethlehem。该词中至今还包含着beth这一成分。B在字母表中之所以排在第二位也许是因为对人类的生存来说住的重要性仅次于衣食。
C c
字母C在腓尼基人的文字中叫gimel,代表骆驼。它在字母表中的排列顺序和希腊字母I(gamma)相同,实际上其字形是从后者演变而来的。C在罗马数字中表示100。
D d
D在古时是描摹拱门或门的形状而成的象形符号,在古代腓尼基语和希伯来语中叫做daleth,是“门”的意思,相当于希腊字母Δ(delta)。E e
E是英语里用得最多的字母。在腓尼基语和希伯来语中E是代表窗的象形符号,叫做he,相当于希腊字母E(epsilon)。
F f)
F(英语字母表中的第六个字母)源自腓尼基语的第六个象形字母,该字母形似今日之英语字母Y,代表木栓或木钉(peg),在腓尼基语和希伯来语的名称为waw。中世纪重罪犯(felon)的左颊常被打上F的印记,以示惩戒。
G g
在古代腓尼基语及希伯来语的字母表里,G是描摹骆驼的头和颈之轮廓的象形字母,其名称为gimel。以后希腊人借用了该符号,作Γ(gamma)。其实字母G与字母C系源于同一腓尼基字母。原拉丁字母表里本无字母G,含g音和含k音的词都以字母C为表示。公元3世纪以后,古罗马人根据C创造了G,自此C表示k音,G则表示g音。
H h
像其它字母一样,H也可通过拉丁语和希腊语的字母表,一直追溯到腓尼基语字母表。在腓尼基语中和H相应的字母有两条横杠,它代表篱笆或栅栏,字母名称叫heth或cheth。I i
第九个字母I源自腓尼基语中叫做yod / yodh的象形字母,该字母被认为代表人的手指。最初小写字母I并不带点。I上面的点是11世纪以后抄写员为区分字母I连写(如filii)与字母u才开始加上去的。此外,在19世纪以前i和j的书写或印刷形式是可互换的,词典也不将它们作为两个不同的字母来对等。如在Samuel Johnson(1709-1784)所编的《英语词典》中,iambic排在jamb和jangle这两个词的中间。英语的I相当于希腊语的I(iota)。J j
字母J是莎士比亚时代后(post-Shakespearean times),约在1630年产生的,和V并称英语字母表中两个最轻的字母。英国国王詹姆斯一世于1611年颁行的《圣经》钦定英译本中就没有J或j这一字母。正如G是基于C构成的,J是由I衍生而来,即在I上加一尾巴构成。然而,直至19世纪I,J的书写形式或印刷形式一直可以互换,并未完全分家。
K k
字母K之根源也可追溯到古代腓尼基语。在腓尼基语字母表里,K乃象形符号,代表人的手。希伯来语把它叫做kaph,即“手(掌)”之意。希腊人借用后作K(kappa)。古罗马时期,犯诽谤罪者的前额被打上K之印记,K代表kalumnia,即相当于英语calumny(诽谤)。
L l
在腓尼基和希伯来字母表中,L叫lamed / lamedh,是表示刺棒(oxgoad)或鞭子的象形符号。希腊语中的相应字母是A(lambda)。
M m
如同别的字母,M也可一直追溯到古腓尼基语。腓尼基人勇于探险,以海上贸易著称,航行曾远至西班牙海岸。M在腓尼基字母表里是表示海浪形状的象开符号。希伯来语把它叫做mem,即为“水”之意。希腊语的相应字母为M(mu)。在中世纪凡犯人罪(manslaugter)者左姆指上往往被烙以M之印记。M在罗马数字中表示1000(拉丁语作mille)。
N n
字母N在埃及象形字里呈波浪形,在腓尼基语中叫做nun,意为“鱼”而希腊语的相应字母则为N(nu)。
O o
许多语言都有形似O的字母,而且都代表人的眼睛。在一些古老的字母表里有的O当中还加了个点,表示瞳孔。在腓尼基语中O叫cayin,意为“眼睛”,在古英语里O叫oedel,意为“家”。
P p
P,英语字母表的第16个字母,古代腓尼基人和希伯来人称之为pe,意为“嘴”。希腊语的相应字母为II(pi)。16世纪有一位名叫Placentius的多明我会修道士(Dominican friar)写了一首题为Pugna Porcorum,由253个六音步诗行组成的诗,诗中每个词的首字母均为p。这恐怕是亘古及今绝无仅有的。
Q q
Q,英语字母表的第17个字母,系由腓尼基语和希伯来语的第19个象形字母演变而来。Q的形状有点像垂着尾巴的猴子。无怪乎腓尼基语把该字母叫做qoph,意思就是“猴子”。在英语中Q后面几乎总跟着U,它绝少出现在词尾,除非是外来语。R r
R,英语字母表的第18个字母,系由腓尼基语和希伯来语的第20个象形字母演变而来。腓尼基人称之为resh,意为“头”。从古罗马时代起,R一直被称作dog’s letter或snarling letter,因为R的发意颇似狗的嗥叫声r-r-r-r或gr-r-r-r。英国剧作家,诗人 Ben Johnson(1572—1637)1636年在其所著《外国人用英文文法》(English Grammar Made for the Benefit of All Strangers) 一书中这样写道:“R is the dog’s letter, and hurreth in the sound; the tongue striking the inner palate, with a trembling about the teeth.”在莎翁的《罗密欧与朱丽叶》一剧中,朱丽叶的保姆和罗密欧谈及他的姓时说,Romeo和rosemary(迷迭香),一种常与婚礼相联系的花,两者都以字母R开头,并称R为dog-name。
S s
在腓尼基语和希伯来语中,S叫shin / sin,意为“牙齿”,字母形状颇像今天的W,而现在的字形则是在它进入拉丁语之后逐渐演变成的。希腊语的相应字母为ε(sigma)。
T t
今日的字母T系由腓尼基语的象形寂母变化而来。早先的字形恰似如今的字母X,叫做taw,意为“记号”(mark)。基于此符号形成的希腊语相应字母为T(tau)。
U u
字母U系由字母V派生而来。在19世纪以前的数百年间,这两个字母就如I和J,一直可以换用,在英语辞书上一直不加以区分。例如在16和17世纪出版的图书upon常拼作vpon,而have常拼作haue。甚至到了1847年,伦敦Henry Washbourne公司出版的《英语词典》(A Dictionary of the English Language)仍在沿用这一做法。
V v
V乃英语字母表中两个最年轻的字母之一(加一个为J),它于莎士比亚时代以后,约1630年出现。但V同时又是U,W,Y等三个字母的祖先,甚至连F也可以说是从V派生出来的。V源于约公元前1000年腓尼基字母表中的第6个象形字母,该字母酷似今日之英语字母Y,叫做waw,意为“木栓”或“木钉”。公元前900年以后,希腊人借用了该字母,并由此衍生出两个字母,一个后来演变为英语字母F,另一个则演变为V和Y。在19世纪以前V和U这两个字母原来是不分的,可以互换的。V在罗马数字里表示5。
W w
和U,Y一样,W亦由V派生而来,其实W系双V连写而成,本应读作double V。W之所以读作double U是因为在19世纪以前的几个世纪U和V一直不分,可以互换。V既是V又是U的符号,即使发U也常写成V,如upon往往拼作vpon。法语的字母就读如double V。
X x
英语字母表的第24个字母,相当于希腊字母表的第22个字母X(chi)。其实前者系借自后者,而后者则源自腓尼基语中一个代表“鱼”,读如samekh的象形字母。 X在罗马数字中代表10,在代数学和数学中 X通常被用以表示未知数。当代数学从阿拉伯传入欧洲时,阿拉伯语中表示“未知数”的 shei一词被译为 xei,于是首字母X就成了未知数的常用代号。关于字母X的由来,还有这样一种说法:X原为表示接吻之象形符号,若写如 x,看起来确有点象两张嘴在亲吻。这种解释可能出自民俗语源。Yy
Y可以说是从V派生而来,但若究起根源Y可以追述到希腊语中被称为毕达哥拉斯字母(the letter of Pythagoras)Υ(upsilon)。在代数中Y常被用以表示第二个未知数。
Zz
Z在英国英语中读如Zed,在美国英语中则读如zee,但在古英语中则读作izzard。Z源自希腊语的第6个字母Z(zeta),而希腊语的Z又是借自腓尼基语。Z的基本意思表示宇宙之主——宙斯。
Weddings in The United States
Weddings in the United States vary as much as the people do. There are church weddings with a great deal of fanfare; there are weddings on mountain-tops with guests barefooted; and there have been weddings on the ocean floor with oxygen tanks for the guests. But many weddings, no matter where or how they are performed, include certain traditional customs.
Before a couple is married, they become engaged. And then invitations are sent to those who live nearby, their close friends and their relatives who live far away. When everything is ready, then comes the most exciting moment.
美国人的婚礼
美国的国土上居住着各种各样的人,他们的婚礼也千差万别。有热闹庄重的教堂婚礼;有在山顶上举行的婚礼,客人们光着脚陪伴登高;也有在海底举行的婚礼,客人们戴着氧气罐跟着入水。但婚礼无论在哪儿举行或怎样举行,总有某些传统的风俗。
在举行婚礼前先要先订婚,然后发放请贴给住在附近的人和好朋友以及远方的亲戚。当一切准备就绪,就该到最激动人心的时刻了。
The wedding itself usually lasts between 20 and 40 minutes. The wedding party enters the church while the wedding march is played. The bride carrying a bouquet enters last with her father who will "give her away". The groom enters the church from a side door. When the wedding party is gathered by the altar, the bride and groom exchange vows. It is traditional to use the words "To have and to hold from this day forward, for better, for worse, for richer, for poorer, in sickness and in health, to love and to cherish, till death do us part[3]". Following the vows, the couple exchange rings. Wearing the wedding ring on the fourth finger of the left hand is an old custom.
婚礼本身通常进行20至40分钟。婚礼一行人伴着结婚进行曲进入教堂。新娘手持一束鲜花和她的父亲最后进来,父亲要把她交给新郎。而新郎则要从侧门进入教堂。当婚礼一行人聚集到教堂的祭坛前时,新娘和新郎互相表达誓言。常用的结婚誓言是:“而今而后,不论境遇好坏,家境贫富,生病与否,誓言相亲相爱,至死不分离。”宣誓过后,二人交换戒指。通常把戒指戴在左手无名指上,这是一个古老的风俗。
After the ceremony there is often a party, called a "reception" which gives the wedding guests an opportunity to congratulate the newlyweds.
The car in which the couple leaves the church is decorated with balloons, streamers and shaving cream. The words "Just Married" are painted on the trunk or back window. The bride and groom run to the car under a shower of rice[4] thrown by the wedding guests. When the couple drives away from the church, friends often chase them in cars, honking and drawing attention to them. And then the couple go on their honeymoon.
礼仪过后,通常会有宴会,叫“喜宴”。宴会给参加婚礼的人一个向新婚夫妇祝贺的机会。
新郎新娘乘坐汽车离开教堂,汽车上装饰有气球,彩色纸带、刮须膏之类的东西。“新婚燕尔”几个字常写在汽车后的行李箱上或后玻璃窗上。新娘新郎从婚礼客人撒下的雨点般的生大米中跑向汽车。小两口儿开车离开教堂时,朋友们常常开车追赶他们,不停地按喇叭,引他们注意。然后小两口儿就接着去度蜜月了。
Grooming and Personal Hygiene of Americans
Grooming and personal hygiene have been around for ages. It's hard to imagine a time when people weren't concerned with taking care of their appearance and their bodies. Perhaps these practices started when Adam first took a bath and combed his hair before going on a date with Eve. Or maybe they began when Eve put on some herbal makeup to make herself more beautiful. No matter where they started, grooming and personal hygiene have become an important part of everyone's daily routine.
You might think that all modern societies would have the same grooming and personal hygiene practices. After all, doesn't everybody take baths? Most people do recognize the need for hygiene, which is the basis for cleanliness and health-and a good way to keep one's friends. Grooming practices include all the little things people do to make themselves look their best, such as combing their hair and putting on makeup. However, while most modern people agree that these things are important, people in different cultures take care of themselves in different ways.
There used to be an old joke in America that people should take a bath once a week, whether they need one or not. In fact, though, Americans generally take a bath-or more commonly, a shower-every day. But in contrast to some cultures, most Americans get their shower in the morning, so they can start the day fresh. And instead of going to a beauty parlor for a shampoo, many Americans prefer to wash and style their own hair. So if Americans have a "bad hair day," they have no one to blame but themselves. But most people in America do head for the beauty parlor or barber shop occasionally for a haircut, a perm or just some friendly conversation.
Americans are known for having very sensitive noses. In America, "B.O." (body odor) is socially unacceptable. For that reason, Americans consider the use of deodorant or anti-perspirant a must. Ladies often add a touch of perfume for an extra fresh scent. Men may splash on after-shave lotion or manly-smelling cologne. Another cultural no-no in America is bad breath. Americans don't like to smell what other people ate for lunch-especially onions or garlic. Their solution? Mouthwash, breath mints and even brushing their teeth after meals.
Some of the cultural variations in grooming practices result from physical differences between races. Whereas many Asian men have little facial hair, Westerners have a lot. As a result, most American men spend some time each day shaving or grooming their facial hair. Beards and mustaches are common sights in America, although their popularity changes from generation to generation. Most American men who wear facial hair try to keep it nicely trimmed. American women, on the other hand, generally prefer not to be hairy at all. Many of them regularly shave their legs and armpits.
Americans put great value on both grooming and personal hygiene. For some people, taking care of themselves has become almost a religion. As the old saying goes, "Cleanliness is next to godliness." Whether or not being clean and well-groomed brings one closer to God, it certainly brings one closer to others. Americans look down on people who don't take care of themselves, or who "let themselves go." To Americans, even if we don't have much to work with, we have to make the best of what we've got.
美国人的仪容整洁与个人卫生
仪容整洁和个人卫生的讲究已经行之有年了。很难想象一个人们不在乎打理外表和身体清洁的时代。或许这些卫生习惯始于亚当第一次洗澡梳头去赴夏娃的约;也可能始于夏娃第一次搽上青草制的化妆品使自己更美丽。无论是从何时开始的,仪容整洁与个人卫生已经成为每个人生活例行事务中重要的一部份。
你可能以为所有现代社会中的仪容整洁与卫生习惯都是一样的。毕竟,不是每一个人天天都要洗澡的吗?大部份人的确肯定卫生的必要性,它是清洁与健康的基础,也是维持友谊的好办法。仪容整洁的工作涵盖了所有可以使人看起来体面的琐碎小事,像是梳头和化妆。虽然大多数的现代人都同意这些事很重要,但不同文化背景的人打理自己的方法也不一样。
以前在美国有一个老笑话,说不管人们需不需要,他们至少每个礼拜该洗一次澡。不过事实上,美国人每天会洗一次澡,或者更普遍的作法是每天淋浴一次。但是不同于某些文化习惯的是,美国人在清晨淋浴,以使他们展开清新的一天。而且美国人不上美容院去洗头,他们宁可自己洗头和整理发型。所以美国人如果有一天头发很丑,除了怪自己之外就没什么好抱怨的了。然而大部份的美国人偶尔会到美容院或理发厅去,剪头发、烫头发,或是去跟人聊聊天。
美国人的鼻子是出了名的灵。在美国,体臭在社交上是不被接受的。因此,美国人会认为使用除臭剂或止汗剂是必须的。女士们通常会再抹点香水以增加清香;男士则拍一些刮胡水或是男性古龙水在脸上。在美国文化里的另一项禁忌是口臭。美国人不喜欢闻别人午餐后留在口中的味道,尤其是洋葱或大蒜。他们怎么解决这问题呢?漱口、吃薄荷糖、甚至饭后刷牙。
有些仪容整洁方面的文化差异是源自于种族间生理条件的不同。亚洲男性面部的胡髭长得并不多,但西方人却长得多,因此美国的男性每天得花些时间去刮除或整理他们的脸毛。在美国,男人在下巴部份或嘴唇上方留胡子是很普通的,不过不同时代胡子受欢迎的样式不相同。在美国大部份留胡子的男性都会试着将胡子修剪整齐,但另一方面,美国女性通常不喜欢毛茸茸的,很多人会定期地刮除腿部和腋下的毛。
美国人非常看重仪容整洁与个人卫生。对某些人而言,打理自己几乎成了一种信仰,如一句古老的谚语说:清洁是仅次于圣洁第二重要的事。不管整齐清洁是不是能使人更接近上帝,但它的确能拉近与人的距离。美国人轻视那些不在乎打理自己或让自己随随便便就好的人。对美国人而言,就算我们没有非常好的先天条件,但至少该尽力将已有的好好发挥。
大家都比较喜欢阅读《读者》、《青年文摘》这样的杂志,其实每一篇完形填空或阅读就是一篇很好的文摘,只是用英文写的而已。所以,做这两样题的时候,不妨把它们当作美文来欣赏。你要是总把它们当题来做,总是追求正确率,就会有压力,就会感觉到难受,哪里还谈什么快乐!一张英语试卷就是一本薄薄的杂志,里面都是老师推荐的美文。我们一边学英语,一边还可以学到很多人生的哲理、幽默故事、世界风情、地理历史介绍……岂不美哉!阅读下面这篇短文,你会有惊人的发现吗?A little boy was spending his Saturday morning playing in his sandbox. He had with him his box of cars and trucks , his plastic pail , and a shiny , red plastic shovel. In the process of creating roads and tunnels in the soft sand , he discovered a large rock in the middle of the sandbox.
在一个周六的早上,一个小男孩在他的沙箱里玩耍,还带了一盒子的玩具车、一只塑料桶和一把闪闪发亮的塑料小红铲。在柔软的沙中堆砌道路和隧道的过程中,他在沙箱的中央发现了一块大石头。The boy dug around the rock , managing to dislodge it from the dirt. With a little bit of struggle , he pushed and nudged the rock across the sandbox by using his feet. ( He was a very small boy, and the rock was very large.) When the boy got the rock to the edge of the sandbox ,however, he found that he couldn’t roll it up and over the little wall.
小男孩在石头的周围挖呀挖,成功地把它从泥沙中挖了出来。接着,他有点吃力把石头往沙箱上推。(他只是个小男孩,石头显得很大。)当他把石头推到沙箱的边缘是,却发现自己没办法把石头滚过沙箱那堵矮小的墙。Determined , the little boy shoved, pushed, and pried, but every time he thought he had made some progress, the rock tipped and then fell back into the sandbox . The little boy grunted, struggled, pushed , and shoved; but his only reward was to have the rock roll back , smashing his chubby fingers .
小男孩下定决心要把石头移走,他又推又撬,但每次自以为取得一些成果时,那石头又滚了下来掉回沙箱中。小男孩咕哝着,使尽全力去推。但唯一的结果就是石头滚回来,撞到他胖胖的手指上。Finally he burst into tears of frustration. All this time the boy’s father watched from his living room window as the drama unfolded. At the moment the tears fell, a large shadow fell across the boy and the sandbox. It was the boy’s father. Gently but firmly he said, “Son, why didn’t you use all the strength that you had available?” Defeated, the boy sobbed back, “But I did, Daddy, I did! I used all the strength that I had!” “No, son,” corrected the father kindly. “You didn’t use all the strength you had. You didn’t ask me.” With that the father reached down, picked up the rock and removed it from the sandbox.
最后,小男孩沮丧地大哭起来。小男孩的父亲一直在客厅的窗户旁注视着这一幕。当小男孩开始掉眼泪的时候,一个大大的身影落在小男孩和他的沙箱上。那是父亲的影子。他温和而坚定地问: “儿子,为什么你没有用尽你所有的力量?” 小男孩很受挫,呜咽的回答道: “我用了,爸爸,我用了!我用尽了我全身的力量。” “不,儿子,”父亲温柔地纠正他说: “你没有用尽你所有的力量。你没有叫我来帮你。” 父亲边说着边弯下腰,捡起那块石头丢出了沙箱。Do you have “rocks” in your life that need to be removed? Are you discovering that you don’t have what it takes to lift them? There is ONE who is always available to us and willing to give us the strength we need. Isn’t it funny how we try so hard to do things ourselves?
在你的生命中,你也遇到过需要移开的“石头”吗?你有没有发现你缺少挪动它的力量?但无论如何,总会有某人在我们需要帮助的时候愿意向我们伸出援手。我们单靠自己的力量来办事不是很傻吗?这是湖北省8校联考的完形填空题,这样简单的哲理故事结果连优秀的学生都做得很糟糕。其实,我们只要思索,就会很受启迪:你学习尽力了吗?很多同学会回答说,是的。真的吗?我们以前的思维也许很不开阔,总以为这是自己个人的事情,与别人无关,所以会自认为我尽力了。然而通过这篇文章我们发现,能够得到别人的帮助也是尽力的表现!闭门造车,还努力些其实也没尽力:尽力原来是要用自己及周围的一切力量来达到目的!通过欣赏这篇文章,除了学到了这个人生的重要道理外,我们还可以学习到高中课本上的重要短语和词汇,例如:In the process of;(新人教版第三册)Determined , the little boy shoved;(第二册)the rock tipped (第二册U8)as the drama unfolded(第二册)……这样的学习,既巩固了旧知识,又见到了新的例句,难道不比死读课本将吗?坚持这样学习,何愁不能学好英语呢?
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