牛顿，中英文简介 牛顿介绍(英语的)
\u8c01\u6709\u725b\u987f\u7684\u82f1\u8bed\u7b80\u4ecb\uff1f\uff1f\uff1f\uff1f\uff1f\uff1f\uff1f\uff1f\uff1f\uff1f\uff1f\uff1f\uff1f\uff1f\uff1f\uff1f\uff1f\uff1f\uff1f\uff1f\uff1f\u60a8\u597d\uff0c\u4ee5\u4e0b\u662f\u4e00\u7bc7\u5173\u4e8e\u725b\u987f\u7684\u82f1\u8bed\u7b80\u4ecb\uff0c\u9644\u5e26\u6c49\u8bed\u5bf9\u7167\uff0c\u5e0c\u671b\u60a8\u559c\u6b22\uff1a
British great physicist, mathematician, astronomer.The boon space Si say:"Newton established astronomy because of discovering gravitational theory, because of carry on light of resolve but established the optics of science, established mathematics of science because of establishing binomial equation axioms and infinite theories, established the mechanics of science because of knowing the man's natural character of the mechanics."Really, Newton made to lay foundation stone sexual contribution in the natural science realm and be rated as science huge Jiang.
Newton was born at a farmer family of Lincolnshire in British the north.In 1661 pass examination Cambridge university the inside Ni Di a school especially, graduate in 1665, at this time just in time plague, Newton goes home to avoid epidemic disease for two years, the period almost considered his whole life in each aspect study, especially he wins from cradle to the grave of a few major contributions:Gravitational theory, classic mechanics, calculus and optics.
Newton discovers gravitational theory, built up classic mechanics, he uses a formula the biggest ephemeris sport in the cosmos and minimum grain sport of the son unify.The cosmos becomes thus clear:All of whichever sports are to without cause take place, is all long long of a series of cause and effect chain be an appearance, a link within, is can accurate description.People break several thoughts that the wills of thousand in the last years absolute beings rule world, start believe there is no thing is can't be accurate by intelligence knowing of.Compare at his ories, Newton greater contribution makes people from now on start believe science.
Newton is 1 far far above the wise science giant of the in those days owner, his quest to the truth is a such Chi fan, with as for all of his ories results just reveal to the public under the urge sincerely of other people and say that the creation is the biggest fun to Newton.
\u82f1\u56fd\u4f1f\u5927\u7684\u7269\u7406\u5b66\u5bb6\u3001\u6570\u5b66\u5bb6\u3001\u5929\u6587\u5b66\u5bb6\u3002\u6069\u683c\u65af\u8bf4\uff1a\u201c\u725b\u987f\u7531\u4e8e\u53d1\u73b0\u4e86\u4e07\u6709\u5f15\u529b\u5b9a\u5f8b\u800c\u521b\u7acb\u4e86\u5929\u6587\u5b66\uff0c\u7531\u4e8e\u8fdb\u884c\u5149\u7684\u5206\u89e3\u800c\u521b\u7acb\u4e86\u79d1\u5b66\u7684\u5149\u5b66\uff0c\u7531\u4e8e\u521b\u7acb\u4e86\u4e8c\u9879\u5f0f\u5b9a\u7406\u548c\u65e0\u9650\u7406\u8bba\u800c\u521b\u7acb\u4e86\u79d1\u5b66\u7684\u6570\u5b66\uff0c\u7531\u4e8e\u8ba4\u8bc6\u4e86\u529b\u5b66\u7684\u672c\u6027\u800c\u521b\u7acb\u4e86\u79d1\u5b66\u7684\u529b\u5b66\u3002\u201d\u7684\u786e\uff0c\u725b\u987f\u5728\u81ea\u7136\u79d1\u5b66\u9886\u57df\u91cc\u4f5c\u4e86\u5960\u57fa\u6027\u7684\u8d21\u732e\uff0c\u582a\u79f0\u79d1\u5b66\u5de8\u5320\u3002
\u725b\u987f\u51fa\u751f\u4e8e\u82f1\u56fd\u5317\u90e8\u6797\u80af\u90e1\u7684\u4e00\u4e2a\u519c\u6c11\u5bb6\u5ead\u30021661\u5e74\u8003\u4e0a\u5251\u6865\u5927\u5b66\u7279\u91cc\u5c3c\u8482\u5b66\u6821\uff0c1665\u5e74\u6bd5\u4e1a\uff0c\u8fd9\u65f6\u6b63\u8d76\u4e0a\u9f20\u75ab\uff0c\u725b\u987f\u56de\u5bb6\u907f\u75ab\u4e24\u5e74\uff0c\u671f\u95f4\u51e0\u4e4e\u8003\u8651\u4e86\u4ed6\u4e00\u751f\u4e2d\u6240\u7814\u7a76\u7684\u5404\u4e2a\u65b9\u9762\uff0c\u7279\u522b\u662f\u4ed6\u4e00\u751f\u4e2d\u7684\u51e0\u4e2a\u91cd\u8981\u8d21\u732e\uff1a\u4e07\u6709\u5f15\u529b\u5b9a\u5f8b\u3001\u7ecf\u5178\u529b\u5b66\u3001\u5fae\u79ef\u5206\u548c\u5149\u5b66\u3002
\u725b\u987f\u53d1\u73b0\u4e07\u6709\u5f15\u529b\u5b9a\u5f8b\uff0c\u5efa\u7acb\u4e86\u7ecf\u5178\u529b\u5b66\uff0c\u4ed6\u7528\u4e00\u4e2a\u516c\u5f0f\u5c06\u5b87\u5b99\u4e2d\u6700\u5927\u5929\u4f53\u7684\u8fd0\u52a8\u548c\u6700\u5c0f\u7c92\u5b50\u7684\u8fd0\u52a8\u7edf\u4e00\u8d77\u6765\u3002\u5b87\u5b99\u53d8\u5f97\u5982\u6b64\u6e05\u6670\uff1a\u4efb\u4f55\u4e00\u4e2a\u8fd0\u52a8\u90fd\u4e0d\u662f\u65e0\u6545\u53d1\u751f\uff0c\u90fd\u662f\u957f\u957f\u7684\u4e00\u7cfb\u5217\u56e0\u679c\u94fe\u6761\u4e2d\u7684\u4e00\u4e2a\u72b6\u6001\u3001\u4e00\u4e2a\u73af\u8282\uff0c\u662f\u53ef\u4ee5\u7cbe\u786e\u63cf\u8ff0\u7684\u3002\u4eba\u4eec\u6253\u7834\u51e0\u5343\u5e74\u6765\u795e\u7684\u610f\u5fd7\u7edf\u6cbb\u4e16\u754c\u7684\u601d\u60f3\uff0c\u5f00\u59cb\u76f8\u4fe1\u6ca1\u6709\u4efb\u4f55\u4e1c\u897f\u662f\u667a\u6167\u6240\u4e0d\u80fd\u786e\u5207\u77e5\u9053\u7684\u3002\u76f8\u6bd4\u4e8e\u4ed6\u7684\u7406\u8bba\uff0c\u725b\u987f\u66f4\u4f1f\u5927\u7684\u8d21\u732e\u662f\u4f7f\u4eba\u4eec\u4ece\u6b64\u5f00\u59cb\u76f8\u4fe1\u79d1\u5b66\u3002
\u725b\u987f\u662f\u4e00\u4e2a\u8fdc\u8fdc\u8d85\u8fc7\u90a3\u4e2a\u65f6\u4ee3\u6240\u6709\u4eba\u667a\u6167\u7684\u79d1\u5b66\u5de8\u4eba\uff0c\u4ed6\u5bf9\u771f\u7406\u7684\u63a2\u7d22\u662f\u5982\u6b64\u75f4\u8ff7\uff0c\u4ee5\u81f3\u4e8e\u4ed6\u7684\u7406\u8bba\u6210\u679c\u90fd\u662f\u5728\u522b\u4eba\u7684\u6566\u4fc3\u4e0b\u624d\u516c\u8bf8\u4e8e\u4e16\u7684\uff0c\u5bf9\u725b\u987f\u6765\u8bf4\u521b\u9020\u672c\u8eab\u5c31\u662f\u6700\u5927\u7684\u4e50\u8da3\u3002
Sir Isaac Newton, (4 January 1643 \u2013 31 March 1727) [ OS: 25 December 1642 \u2013 20 March 1727][1] was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, alchemist, and natural philosopher, regarded by many as the greatest figure in the history of science.[2] His treatise Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, laying the groundwork for classical mechanics. By deriving Kepler's laws of planetary motion from this system, he was the first to show that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws. The unifying and predictive power of his laws was integral to the scientific revolution, the advancement of heliocentrism, and the broader acceptance of the notion that rational investigation can reveal the inner workings of nature.
In mechanics, Newton also markedly enunciated the principles of conservation of momentum and angular momentum. In optics, he invented the reflecting telescope and discovered that the spectrum of colors observed when white light passes through a prism is inherent in the white light and not added by the prism (as Roger Bacon had claimed in the thirteenth century). Newton notably argued that light is composed of particles. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling, studied the speed of sound, and proposed a theory of the origin of stars. In mathematics, Newton shares the credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of calculus. He also demonstrated the generalized binomial theorem, developed the so-called "Newton's method" for approximating the zeroes of a function, and contributed to the study of power series.
French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange often said that Newton was the greatest genius who ever lived, and once added that he was also "the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish."[3] English poet Alexander Pope was moved by Newton's accomplishments to write the famous epitaph:
Isaac Newton was one of the leading figures of the scientific revolution is the seventeenth century. He devoted his life to the study of the natural world, discovering the laws of gravity and motion, analyzing light, and developing the mathematics of calculus. He was born prematurely on December 25, 1642, in Woolsthorpe, England, to a poor farming family. Newton was taken out of school to work on the family farm at the age of 16 after his stepfather's death.
English physicist and mathematician who was born into a poor farming family. Luckily for humanity, Newton was not a good farmer, and was sent to Cambridge to study to become a preacher. At Cambridge, Newton studied mathematics, being especially strongly influenced by Euclid, although he was also influenced by Baconian and Cartesian philosophies. Newton was forced to leave Cambridge when it was closed because of the plague, and it was during this period that he made some of his most significant discoveries. With the reticence he was to show later in life, Newton did not, however, publish his results.
Newton suffered a mental breakdown in 1675 and was still recovering through 1679. In response to a letter from Hooke, he suggested that a particle, if released, would spiral in to the center of the Earth. Hooke wrote back, claiming that the path would not be a spiral, but an ellipse. Newton, who hated being bested, then proceeded to work out the mathematics of orbits. Again, he did not publish his calculations. Newton then began devoting his efforts to theological speculation and put the calculations on elliptical motion aside, telling Halley he had lost them (Westfall 1993, p. 403). Halley, who had become interested in orbits, finally convinced Newton to expand and publish his calculations. Newton devoted the period from August 1684 to spring 1686 to this task, and the result became one of the most important and influential works on physics of all times, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) (1687), often shortened to Principia Mathematica or simply "the Principia."
In Book I of Principia, Newton opened with definitions and the three laws of motion now known as Newton's laws (laws of inertia, action and reaction, and acceleration proportional to force). Book II presented Newton's new scientific philosophy which came to replace Cartesianism. Finally, Book III consisted of applications of his dynamics, including an explanation for tides and a theory of lunar motion. To test his hypothesis of universal gravitation, Newton wrote Flamsteed to ask if Saturn had been observed to slow down upon passing Jupiter. The surprised Flamsteed replied that an effect had indeed been observed, and it was closely predicted by the calculations Newton had provided. Newton's equations were further confirmed by observing the shape of the Earth to be oblate spheroidal, as Newton claimed it should be, rather than prolate spheroidal, as claimed by the Cartesians. Newton's equations also described the motion of Moon by successive approximations, and correctly predicted the return of Halley's Comet. Newton also correctly formulated and solved the first ever problem in the calculus of variations which involved finding the surface of revolution which would give minimum resistance to flow (assuming a specific drag law).
Newton invented a scientific method which was truly universal in its scope. Newton presented his methodology as a set of four rules for scientific reasoning. These rules were stated in the Principia and proposed that (1) we are to admit no more causes of natural things such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances, (2) the same natural effects must be assigned to the same causes, (3) qualities of bodies are to be esteemed as universal, and (4) propositions deduced from observation of phenomena should be viewed as accurate until other phenomena contradict them.
These four concise and universal rules for investigation were truly revolutionary. By their application, Newton formulated the universal laws of nature with which he was able to unravel virtually all the unsolved problems of his day. Newton went much further than outlining his rules for reasoning, however, actually describing how they might be applied to the solution of a given problem. The analytic method he invented far exceeded the more philosophical and less scientifically rigorous approaches of Aristotle and Aquinas. Newton refined Galileo's experimental method, creating the compositional method of experimentation still practiced today. In fact, the following description of the experimental method from Newton's Optics could easily be mistaken for a modern statement of current methods of investigation, if not for Newton's use of the words "natural philosophy" in place of the modern term "the physical sciences." Newton wrote, "As in mathematics, so in natural philosophy the investigation of difficult things by the method of analysis ought ever to precede the method of composition. This analysis consists of making experiments and observations, and in drawing general conclusions from them by induction...by this way of analysis we may proceed from compounds to ingredients, and from motions to the forces producing them; and in general from effects to their causes, and from particular causes to more general ones till the argument end in the most general. This is the method of analysis: and the synthesis consists in assuming the causes discovered and established as principles, and by them explaining the phenomena preceding from them, and proving the explanations."
Newton formulated the classical theories of mechanics and optics and invented calculus years before Leibniz. However, he did not publish his work on calculus until afterward Leibniz had published his. This led to a bitter priority dispute between English and continental mathematicians which persisted for decades, to the detriment of all concerned. Newton discovered that the binomial theorem was valid for fractional powers, but left it for Wallis to publish (which he did, with appropriate credit to Newton). Newton formulated a theory of sound, but derived a speed which did not agree with his experiments. The reason for the discrepancy was that the concept of adiabatic propagation did not yet exist, so Newton's answer was too low by a factor of , where is the ratio of heat capacities of air. Newton therefore fudged his theory until agreement was achieved (Engineering and Science, pp. 15-16).
In Optics (1704), whose publication Newton delayed until Hooke's death, Newton observed that white light could be separated by a prism into a spectrum of different colors, each characterized by a unique refractivity, and proposed the corpuscular theory of light. Newton's views on optics were born out of the original prism experiments he performed at Cambridge. In his "experimentum crucis" (crucial experiment), he found that the image produced by a prism was oval-shaped and not circular, as current theories of light would require. He observed a half-red, half-blue string through a prism, and found the ends to be disjointed. He also observed Newton's rings, which are actually a manifestation of the wave nature of light which Newton did not believe in. Newton believed that light must move faster in a medium when it is refracted towards the normal, in opposition to the result predicted by Huygens's wave theory.
Newton also formulated a system of chemistry in Query 31 at the end of Optics. In this corpuscular theory, "elements" consisted of different arrangements of atoms, and atoms consisted of small, hard, billiard ball-like particles. He explained chemical reactions in terms of the chemical affinities of the participating substances. Newton devoted a majority of his free time later in life (after 1678) to fruitless alchemical experiments.
Newton was extremely sensitive to criticism, and even ceased publishing until the death of his arch-rival Hooke. It was only through the prodding of Halley that Newton was persuaded at all to publish the Principia Mathematica. In the latter portion of his life, he devoted much of his time to alchemical researches and trying to date events in the Bible. After Newton's death, his burial place was moved. During the exhumation, it was discovered that Newton had massive amounts of mercury in his body, probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits. This would certainly explain Newton's eccentricity in late life. Newton was appointed Warden of the British Mint in 1695. Newton was knighted by Queen Anne. However, the act was "an honor bestowed not for his contributions to science, nor for his service at the Mint, but for the greater glory of party politics in the election of 1705" (Westfall 1993, p. 625).
Newton singlehandedly contributed more to the development of science than any other individual in history. He surpassed all the gains brought about by the great scientific minds of antiquity, producing a scheme of the universe which was more consistent, elegant, and intuitive than any proposed before. Newton stated explicit principles of scientific methods which applied universally to all branches of science. This was in sharp contradistinction to the earlier methodologies of Aristotle and Aquinas, which had outlined separate methods for different disciplines.
Although his methodology was strictly logical, Newton still believed deeply in the necessity of a God. His theological views are characterized by his belief that the beauty and regularity of the natural world could only "proceed from the counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful Being." He felt that "the Supreme God exists necessarily, and by the same necessity he exists always and everywhere." Newton believed that God periodically intervened to keep the universe going on track. He therefore denied the importance of Leibniz's vis viva as nothing more than an interesting quantity which remained constant in elastic collisions and therefore had no physical importance or meaning.
Although earlier philosophers such as Galileo and John Philoponus had used experimental procedures, Newton was the first to explicitly define and systematize their use. His methodology produced a neat balance between theoretical and experimental inquiry and between the mathematical and mechanical approaches. Newton mathematized all of the physical sciences, reducing their study to a rigorous, universal, and rational procedure which marked the ushering in of the Age of Reason. Thus, the basic principles of investigation set down by Newton have persisted virtually without alteration until modern times. In the years since Newton's death, they have borne fruit far exceeding anything even Newton could have imagined. They form the foundation on which the technological civilization of today rests. The principles expounded by Newton were even applied to the social sciences, influencing the economic theories of Adam Smith and the decision to make the United States legislature bicameral. These latter applications, however, pale in contrast to Newton's scientific contributions.
It is therefore no exaggeration to identify Newton as the single most important contributor to the development of modern science. The Latin inscription on Newton's tomb, despite its bombastic language, is thus fully justified in proclaiming, "Mortals! rejoice at so great an ornament to the human race!" Alexander Pope's couplet is also apropos: "Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night; God said, Let Newton be! and all was light."
\u725b\u987f\uff0c\u4f1f\u5927\u7684\u82f1\u56fd\u7269\u7406\u5b66\u5bb6\uff0c1642\u5e7412\u670825\u65e5\u751f\u4e8e\u6797\u80af\u90e1\u4f0d\u5c14\u7d22\u666e\u6751\u7684\u4e00\u4e2a\u519c\u6c11\u5bb6\u5ead\uff0e12\u5c81\u4ed6\u5728\u683c\u5170\u6492\u59c6\u7684\u516c\u7acb\u5b66\u6821\u8bfb\u4e66\u65f6\uff0c\u5c31\u8868\u73b0\u4e86\u5bf9\u5b9e\u9a8c\u548c\u673a\u68b0\u53d1\u660e\u7684\u5174\u8da3\uff0c\u81ea\u5df1\u52a8\u624b\u5236\u4f5c\u4e86\u6c34\u949f\u3001\u98ce\u78e8\u548c\u65e5\u6677\u7b49\uff0e1661\u5e74\uff0c\u725b\u987f\u5c31\u8bfb\u4e8e\u5251\u6865\u5927\u5b66\u7684\u4e09\u4e00\u5b66\u9662\uff0c\u6210\u4e86\u4e00\u540d\u4f18\u79c0\u5b66\u751f\uff0e1669\u5e74\uff0c\u5e74\u4ec527\u5c81\uff0c\u5c31\u62c5\u4efb\u4e86\u5251\u6865\u7684\u6570\u5b66\u6559\u6388\uff0e1672\u5e74\u5f53\u9009\u4e3a\u82f1\u56fd\u7687\u5bb6\u5b66\u4f1a\u4f1a\u5458\uff0e
1685\uff5e1687\u5e74\uff0c\u5728\u5929\u6587\u5b66\u5bb6\u54c8\u96f7\u7684\u9f13\u52b1\u548c\u8d5e\u52a9\u4e0b\uff0c\u725b\u987f\u53d1\u8868\u4e86\u8457\u540d\u7684\u300a\u81ea\u7136\u54f2\u5b66\u7684\u6570\u5b66\u539f\u7406\u300b\uff0c\u5b8c\u6210\u4e86\u5177\u6709\u5386\u53f2\u610f\u4e49\u7684\u53d1\u73b0\u2014\u2014\u8fd0\u52a8\u5b9a\u5f8b\u548c\u4e07\u6709\u5f15\u529b\u5b9a\u5f8b\uff0c\u5bf9\u8fd1\u4ee3\u81ea\u7136\u79d1\u5b66\u7684\u53d1\u5c55\uff0c\u4f5c\u51fa\u4e86\u91cd\u5927\u8d21\u732e\uff0e1703\u5e74\uff0c\u5f53\u9009\u4e3a\u82f1\u56fd\u7687\u5bb6\u5b66\u4f1a\u4f1a\u957f\uff0e1727\u5e743\u670827\u65e5\uff0c\u901d\u4e16\u4e8e\u4f26\u6566\u90ca\u5916\u7684\u4e00\u4e2a\u5c0f\u6751\u843d\u91cc\uff0e
\u725b\u987f\u4e0d\u4ec5\u5bf9\u4e8e\u529b\u5b66\uff0c\u5728\u5176\u4ed6\u65b9\u9762\u4e5f\u6709\u5f88\u5927\u8d21\u732e\uff0e\u5728\u6570\u5b66\u65b9\u9762\uff0c\u4ed6\u53d1\u73b0\u4e86\u4e8c\u9879\u5f0f\u5b9a\u7406\uff0c\u521b\u7acb\u4e86\u5fae\u79ef\u5206\u5b66\uff1b\u5728\u5149\u5b66\u65b9\u9762\uff0c\u8fdb\u884c\u4e86\u592a\u9633\u5149\u7684\u8272\u6563\u5b9e\u9a8c\uff0c\u8bc1\u660e\u4e86\u767d\u5149\u662f\u7531\u5355\u8272\u5149\u590d\u5408\u800c\u6210\u7684\uff0c\u7814\u7a76\u4e86\u989c\u8272\u7684\u7406\u8bba\uff0c\u8fd8\u53d1\u660e\u4e86\u53cd\u5c04\u671b\u8fdc\u955c\uff0e
(中文）艾萨克·牛顿（1643年（格里历）1月4日—1727年3月31日）爵士，英国皇家学会会长，英国著名的物理学家，百科全书式的“全才”，著有《自然哲学的数学原理》、《光学》。 他在1687年发表的论文《自然定律》里，对万有引力和三大运动定律进行了描述。这些描述奠定了此后三个世纪里物理世界的科学观点，并成为了现代工程学的基础。他通过论证开普勒行星运动定律与他的引力理论间的一致性，展示了地面物体与天体的运动都遵循着相同的自然定律；为太阳中心说提供了强有力的理论支持，并推动了科学革命。 在力学上，牛顿阐明了动量和角动量守恒的原理，提出牛顿运动定律[1] 。在光学上，他发明了反射望远镜，并基于对三棱镜将白光发散成可见光谱的观察，发展出了颜色理论。他还系统地表述了冷却定律，并研究了音速。 在数学上，牛顿与戈特弗里德·威廉·莱布尼茨分享了发展出微积分学的荣誉。他也证明了广义二项式定理，提出了“牛顿法”以趋近函数的零点，并为幂级数的研究做出了贡献。 在经济学上，牛顿提出金本位制度。
（英文）
Isaac Newton (1643 (Gregorian calendar) Jan 4 - March 31, 1727) Sir, president of the Royal Society, the famous British physicist, encyclopedia-style "all-rounder", the the "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", "optics." In 1687, he published the essay "Natural Law", the gravitation and the three laws of motion are described. These descriptions lay the scientific point of view the three centuries since then the physical world, and became the basis for modern engineering. He Kepler laws of planetary motion by demonstrating the consistency between his theory of gravity, showing the movement of ground objects and other heavenly bodies have followed the same laws of nature; for the heliocentric theory provides a strong support, and to promote the Scientific Revolution. In mechanics, Newton clarifies the principle of conservation of momentum and angular momentum, Newton's laws of motion put forward [1]. In optics, he invented the reflecting telescope, and will be based on a prism of white light into the visible spectrum divergence observed, developed a theory of color. He also systematically expresses the law of cooling and studied the speed of sound. In mathematics, Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz developed calculus to share the school's honor. He also demonstrated the generalized binomial theorem, proposed the "Newton's Law" to function closer to zero, and for the study of power series to make a contribution. In economics, Newton made the gold standard.
Isaac Newton
INTRODUCTION
Newton, Sir Isaac (1642-1727), mathematician and physicist, one of the foremost scientific intellects of all time. Born at Woolsthorpe, near Grantham in Lincolnshire, where he attended school, he entered Cambridge University in 1661; he was elected a Fellow of Trinity College in 1667, and Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 1669. He remained at the university, lecturing in most years, until 1696. Of these Cambridge years, in which Newton was at the height of his creative power, he singled out 1665-1666 (spent largely in Lincolnshire because of plague in Cambridge) as "the prime of my age for invention". During two to three years of intense mental effort he prepared Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) commonly known as the Principia, although this was not published until 1687.
As a firm opponent of the attempt by King James II to make the universities into Catholic institutions, Newton was elected Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge to the Convention Parliament of 1689, and sat again in 1701-1702. Meanwhile, in 1696 he had moved to London as Warden of the Royal Mint. He became Master of the Mint in 1699, an office he retained to his death. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1671, and in 1703 he became President, being annually re-elected for the rest of his life. His major work, Opticks, appeared the next year; he was knighted in Cambridge in 1705.
As Newtonian science became increasingly accepted on the Continent, and especially after a general peace was restored in 1714, following the War of the Spanish Succession, Newton became the most highly esteemed natural philosopher in Europe. His last decades were passed in revising his major works, polishing his studies of ancient history, and defending himself against critics, as well as carrying out his official duties. Newton was modest, diffident, and a man of simple tastes. He was angered by criticism or opposition, and harboured resentment; he was harsh towards enemies but generous to friends. In government, and at the Royal Society, he proved an able administrator. He never married and lived modestly, but was buried with great pomp in Westminster Abbey.
Newton has been regarded for almost 300 years as the founding examplar of modern physical science, his achievements in experimental investigation being as innovative as those in mathematical research. With equal, if not greater, energy and originality he also plunged into chemistry, the early history of Western civilization, and theology; among his special studies was an investigation of the form and dimensions, as described in the Bible, of Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem.
牛顿
我不知道在别人看来，我是什么样的人；但在我自己看来，我不过就象是一个在海滨玩耍的小孩，为不时发现比寻常更为光滑的一块卵石或比寻常更为美丽的一片贝壳而沾沾自喜，而对于展现在我面前的浩瀚的真理的海洋，却全然没有发现。
——牛顿
艾萨克·牛顿（Isaac Newton，1643年1月4日—1727年3月31日），英国数学家、物理学家和哲学家。牛顿在《自然哲学的数学原理》里提出的万有引力定律以及他的牛顿运动定律是经典力学的基石，他还和莱布尼茨各自独立地发明了微积分，被誉为人类历史上最伟大的科学家之一。因为牛顿，经典力学又名为“牛顿力学”，而力的单位也叫做“牛顿”，另外，以牛顿命名的数学和科学术语还有“牛顿方程”、“牛顿-莱布尼茨公式”、“牛顿法”、“高斯－牛顿最小二乘法”、“牛顿环”、“非牛顿流体”等。
Isaac Newton's Life
Special thanks to the Microsoft Corporation for their contribution to our site. The following information came from Microsoft Encarta.
I INTRODUCTION
Newton, Sir Isaac (1642-1727), mathematician and physicist, one of the foremost scientific intellects of all time. Born at Woolsthorpe, near Grantham in Lincolnshire, where he attended school, he entered Cambridge University in 1661; he was elected a Fellow of Trinity College in 1667, and Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 1669. He remained at the university, lecturing in most years, until 1696. Of these Cambridge years, in which Newton was at the height of his creative power, he singled out 1665-1666 (spent largely in Lincolnshire because of plague in Cambridge) as "the prime of my age for invention". During two to three years of intense mental effort he prepared Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) commonly known as the Principia, although this was not published until 1687.
As a firm opponent of the attempt by King James II to make the universities into Catholic institutions, Newton was elected Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge to the Convention Parliament of 1689, and sat again in 1701-1702. Meanwhile, in 1696 he had moved to London as Warden of the Royal Mint. He became Master of the Mint in 1699, an office he retained to his death. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1671, and in 1703 he became President, being annually re-elected for the rest of his life. His major work, Opticks, appeared the next year; he was knighted in Cambridge in 1705.
As Newtonian science became increasingly accepted on the Continent, and especially after a general peace was restored in 1714, following the War of the Spanish Succession, Newton became the most highly esteemed natural philosopher in Europe. His last decades were passed in revising his major works, polishing his studies of ancient history, and defending himself against critics, as well as carrying out his official duties. Newton was modest, diffident, and a man of simple tastes. He was angered by criticism or opposition, and harboured resentment; he was harsh towards enemies but generous to friends. In government, and at the Royal Society, he proved an able administrator. He never married and lived modestly, but was buried with great pomp in Westminster Abbey.
Newton has been regarded for almost 300 years as the founding examplar of modern physical science, his achievements in experimental investigation being as innovative as those in mathematical research. With equal, if not greater, energy and originality he also plunged into chemistry, the early history of Western civilization, and theology; among his special studies was an investigation of the form and dimensions, as described in the Bible, of Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem.
II OPTICS
In 1664, while still a student, Newton read recent work on optics and light by the English physicists Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke; he also studied both the mathematics and the physics of the French philosopher and scientist René Descartes. He investigated the refraction of light by a glass prism; developing over a few years a series of increasingly elaborate, refined, and exact experiments, Newton discovered measurable, mathematical patterns in the phenomenon of colour. He found white light to be a mixture of infinitely varied coloured rays (manifest in the rainbow and the spectrum), each ray definable by the angle through which it is refracted on entering or leaving a given transparent medium. He correlated this notion with his study of the interference colours of thin films (for example, of oil on water, or soap bubbles), using a simple technique of extreme acuity to measure the thickness of such films. He held that light consisted of streams of minute particles. From his experiments he could infer the magnitudes of the transparent "corpuscles" forming the surfaces of bodies, which, according to their dimensions, so interacted with white light as to reflect, selectively, the different observed colours of those surfaces.
The roots of these unconventional ideas were with Newton by about 1668; when first expressed (tersely and partially) in public in 1672 and 1675, they provoked hostile criticism, mainly because colours were thought to be modified forms of homogeneous white light. Doubts, and Newton's rejoinders, were printed in the learned journals. Notably, the scepticism of Christiaan Huygens and the failure of the French physicist Edmé Mariotte to duplicate Newton's refraction experiments in 1681 set scientists on the Continent against him for a generation. The publication of Opticks, largely written by 1692, was delayed by Newton until the critics were dead. The book was still imperfect: the colours of diffraction defeated Newton. Nevertheless, Opticks established itself, from about 1715, as a model of the interweaving of theory with quantitative experimentation.
III MATHEMATICS
In mathematics too, early brilliance appeared in Newton's student notes. He may have learnt geometry at school, though he always spoke of himself as self-taught; certainly he advanced through studying the writings of his compatriots William Oughtred and John Wallis, and of Descartes and the Dutch school. Newton made contributions to all branches of mathematics then studied, but is especially famous for his solutions to the contemporary problems in analytical geometry of drawing tangents to curves (differentiation) and defining areas bounded by curves (integration). Not only did Newton discover that these problems were inverse to each other, but he discovered general methods of resolving problems of curvature, embraced in his "method of fluxions" and "inverse method of fluxions", respectively equivalent to Leibniz's later differential and integral calculus. Newton used the term "fluxion" (from Latin meaning "flow") because he imagined a quantity "flowing" from one magnitude to another. Fluxions were expressed algebraically, as Leibniz's differentials were, but Newton made extensive use also (especially in the Principia) of analogous geometrical arguments. Late in life, Newton expressed regret for the algebraic style of recent mathematical progress, preferring the geometrical method of the Classical Greeks, which he regarded as clearer and more rigorous.
Newton's work on pure mathematics was virtually hidden from all but his correspondents until 1704, when he published, with Opticks, a tract on the quadrature of curves (integration) and another on the classification of the cubic curves. His Cambridge lectures, delivered from about 1673 to 1683, were published in 1707.
The Calculus Priority Dispute
Newton had the essence of the methods of fluxions by 1666. The first to become known, privately, to other mathematicians, in 1668, was his method of integration by infinite series. In Paris in 1675 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz independently evolved the first ideas of his differential calculus, outlined to Newton in 1677. Newton had already described some of his mathematical discoveries to Leibniz, not including his method of fluxions. In 1684 Leibniz published his first paper on calculus; a small group of mathematicians took up his ideas.
In the 1690s Newton's friends proclaimed the priority of Newton's methods of fluxions. Supporters of Leibniz asserted that he had communicated the differential method to Newton, although Leibniz had claimed no such thing. Newtonians then asserted, rightly, that Leibniz had seen papers of Newton's during a London visit in 1676; in reality, Leibniz had taken no notice of material on fluxions. A violent dispute sprang up, part public, part private, extended by Leibniz to attacks on Newton's theory of gravitation and his ideas about God and creation; it was not ended even by Leibniz's death in 1716. The dispute delayed the reception of Newtonian science on the Continent, and dissuaded British mathematicians from sharing the researches of Continental colleagues for a century.
IV MECHANICS AND GRAVITATION
According to the well-known story, it was on seeing an apple fall in his orchard at some time during 1665 or 1666 that Newton conceived that the same force governed the motion of the Moon and the apple. He calculated the force needed to hold the Moon in its orbit, as compared with the force pulling an object to the ground. He also calculated the centripetal force needed to hold a stone in a sling, and the relation between the length of a pendulum and the time of its swing. These early explorations were not soon exploited by Newton, though he studied astronomy and the problems of planetary motion.
Correspondence with Hooke (1679-1680) redirected Newton to the problem of the path of a body subjected to a centrally directed force that varies as the inverse square of the distance; he determined it to be an ellipse, so informing Edmond Halley in August 1684. Halley's interest led Newton to demonstrate the relationship afresh, to compose a brief tract on mechanics, and finally to write the Principia.
Book I of the Principia states the foundations of the science of mechanics, developing upon them the mathematics of orbital motion round centres of force. Newton identified gravitation as the fundamental force controlling the motions of the celestial bodies. He never found its cause. To contemporaries who found the idea of attractions across empty space unintelligible, he conceded that they might prove to be caused by the impacts of unseen particles.
Book II inaugurates the theory of fluids: Newton solves problems of fluids in movement and of motion through fluids. From the density of air he calculated the speed of sound waves.
Book III shows the law of gravitation at work in the universe: Newton demonstrates it from the revolutions of the six known planets, including the Earth, and their satellites. However, he could never quite perfect the difficult theory of the Moon's motion. Comets were shown to obey the same law; in later editions, Newton added conjectures on the possibility of their return. He calculated the relative masses of heavenly bodies from their gravitational forces, and the oblateness of Earth and Jupiter, already observed. He explained tidal ebb and flow and the precession of the equinoxes from the forces exerted by the Sun and Moon. All this was done by exact computation.
Newton's work in mechanics was accepted at once in Britain, and universally after half a century. Since then it has been ranked among humanity's greatest achievements in abstract thought. It was extended and perfected by others, notably Pierre Simon de Laplace, without changing its basis and it survived into the late 19th century before it began to show signs of failing. See Quantum Theory; Relativity.
V ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY
Newton left a mass of manuscripts on the subjects of alchemy and chemistry, then closely related topics. Most of these were extracts from books, bibliographies, dictionaries, and so on, but a few are original. He began intensive experimentation in 1669, continuing till he left Cambridge, seeking to unravel the meaning that he hoped was hidden in alchemical obscurity and mysticism. He sought understanding of the nature and structure of all matter, formed from the "solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, movable particles" that he believed God had created. Most importantly in the "Queries" appended to "Opticks" and in the essay "On the Nature of Acids" (1710), Newton published an incomplete theory of chemical force, concealing his exploration of the alchemists, which became known a century after his death.
VI HISTORICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL STUDIES
Newton owned more books on humanistic learning than on mathematics and science; all his life he studied them deeply. His unpublished "classical scholia"—explanatory notes intended for use in a future edition of the Principia—reveal his knowledge of pre-Socratic philosophy; he read the Fathers of the Church even more deeply. Newton sought to reconcile Greek mythology and record with the Bible, considered the prime authority on the early history of mankind. In his work on chronology he undertook to make Jewish and pagan dates compatible, and to fix them absolutely from an astronomical argument about the earliest constellation figures devised by the Greeks. He put the fall of Troy at 904 BC, about 500 years later than other scholars; this was not well received.
VII RELIGIOUS CONVICTIONS AND PERSONALITY
Newton also wrote on Judaeo-Christian prophecy, whose decipherment was essential, he thought, to the understanding of God. His book on the subject, which was reprinted well into the Victorian Age, represented lifelong study. Its message was that Christianity went astray in the 4th century AD, when the first Council of Nicaea propounded erroneous doctrines of the nature of Christ. The full extent of Newton's unorthodoxy was recognized only in the present century: but although a critic of accepted Trinitarian dogmas and the Council of Nicaea, he possessed a deep religious sense, venerated the Bible and accepted its account of creation. In late editions of his scientific works he expressed a strong sense of God's providential role in nature.
VIII PUBLICATIONS
Newton published an edition of Geographia generalis by the German geographer Varenius in 1672. His own letters on optics appeared in print from 1672 to 1676. Then he published nothing until the Principia (published in Latin in 1687; revised in 1713 and 1726; and translated into English in 1729). This was followed by Opticks in 1704; a revised edition in Latin appeared in 1706. Posthumously published writings include The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728), The System of the World (1728), the first draft of Book III of the Principia, and Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St John (1733).
Contributed By:
牛顿，中文简介
http://bk.baidu.com/view/1511.htm
英文
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton
I don’t know
绛旓細鐗涢】涓銆佺敓骞绠浠 鐗涢】(1643鈥1727)鏄嫳鍥借憲鍚嶇殑鐗╃悊瀛﹀銆佹暟瀛﹀鍜屽ぉ鏂囧瀹,鏄崄涓冧笘绾渶浼熷ぇ鐨勭瀛﹀法鍖犮1643骞1鏈4鏃(鍎掔暐鍘1642骞12鏈25鏃)鐗涢】璇炵敓浜庤嫳鏍煎叞鏋楄偗閮＄殑灏忛晣涔屽皵鏂储鏅殑涓涓嚜鑰曞啘瀹跺涵銆12宀佽繘鍏ョ瀹朵笉杩滅殑鏍煎叞鐟熷涓...
绛旓細developed color theory. He also systematically describes the law of cooling, and the study of sonic. In mathematics, Newton and Gottfried Leibniz shared developed calculus honors. He also proved the generalized bi...
绛旓細鑹捐惃鍏嬄鐗涢】锛圫ir Isaac Newton FRS, 1643骞1鏈4鏃1727骞3鏈31鏃ワ級鐖靛＋锛岃嫳鍥界殗瀹跺浼氫細鍛橈紝鏄竴浣嶈嫳鍥界墿鐞嗗瀹躲佹暟瀛﹀銆佸ぉ鏂囧瀹躲佽嚜鐒跺摬瀛﹀鍜岀偧閲戞湳澹備粬鍦1687骞村彂琛ㄧ殑璁烘枃銆婅嚜鐒跺摬瀛︾殑鏁板鍘熺悊銆嬮噷锛屽涓囨湁寮曞姏...
绛旓細鑹捐惃鍏嬄鐗涢】锛圛saac Newton 1642.12.25鈥斺1727.3.20.锛夎嫳鍥界墿鐞嗗瀹躲佹暟瀛﹀銆佸ぉ鏂囧瀹跺拰鑷劧鍝插瀹躲傘绠浠銆戞渶璐熺洓鍚嶇殑鏁板瀹躲佺瀛﹀鍜屽摬瀛﹀锛屽悓鏃舵槸鑻卞浗褰撴椂鐐奸噾鏈儹琛疯呫備粬鍦1687骞7鏈5鏃ュ彂琛ㄧ殑銆婅嚜鐒跺摬瀛︾殑...
绛旓細鑹捐惃鍏嬄鐗涢】锛1643骞1鏈4鏃モ1727骞3鏈31鏃ワ級鐖靛＋锛岃嫳鍥界殗瀹跺浼氫細闀匡紝鑻卞浗钁楀悕鐨勭墿鐞嗗瀹讹紝鐧剧鍏ㄤ功寮忕殑鈥滃叏鎵嶁濓紝钁楁湁銆婅嚜鐒跺摬瀛︾殑鏁板鍘熺悊銆嬨併婂厜瀛︺嬨備粬鍦1687骞村彂琛ㄧ殑璁烘枃銆婅嚜鐒跺畾寰嬨嬮噷锛屽涓囨湁寮曞姏鍜屼笁澶ц繍鍔...
绛旓細鑹捐惃鍏嬄鐗涢】锛1643骞1鏈4鏃モ1727骞3鏈31鏃ワ級鐖靛＋锛岃嫳鍥界殗瀹跺浼氫細闀匡紝鑻卞浗钁楀悕鐨勭墿鐞嗗瀹讹紝鐧剧鍏ㄤ功寮忕殑鈥滃叏鎵嶁濓紝钁楁湁銆婅嚜鐒跺摬瀛︾殑鏁板鍘熺悊銆嬨併婂厜瀛︺嬨備粬鍦1687骞村彂琛ㄧ殑璁烘枃銆婅嚜鐒跺畾寰嬨嬮噷锛屽涓囨湁寮曞姏鍜屼笁澶ц繍鍔...
绛旓細鑹捐惃鍏嬄鐗涢】锛1643骞1鏈4鏃モ1727骞3鏈31鏃ワ級锛岀埖澹紝鑻卞浗鐨囧瀛︿細浼氶暱锛岃嫳鍥借憲鍚嶇殑鐗╃悊瀛﹀銆佹暟瀛﹀锛岀櫨绉戝叏涔﹀紡鐨勨滃叏鎵嶁濓紝钁楁湁銆婅嚜鐒跺摬瀛︾殑鏁板鍘熺悊銆嬨併婂厜瀛︺嬨備粬鍦1687骞村彂琛ㄧ殑璁烘枃銆婅嚜鐒跺畾寰嬨嬮噷锛屽涓囨湁寮曞姏鍜...
绛旓細鐗涢】,浼熷ぇ鐨勮嫳鍥界墿鐞嗗瀹,1642骞12鏈25鏃ョ敓浜庢灄鑲儭浼嶅皵绱㈡櫘鏉戠殑涓涓啘姘戝搴.12宀佷粬鍦ㄦ牸鍏版拻濮嗙殑鍏珛瀛︽牎璇讳功鏃,灏辫〃鐜颁簡瀵瑰疄楠屽拰鏈烘鍙戞槑鐨勫叴瓒,鑷繁鍔ㄦ墜鍒朵綔浜嗘按閽熴侀纾ㄥ拰鏃ユ櫡绛.1661骞,鐗涢】灏辫浜庡墤妗ュぇ瀛︾殑涓変竴瀛﹂櫌,鎴愪簡涓鍚...
