求一篇压缩机方面的英文论文（最好是隔膜压缩机的）3000字以上 求一篇机械方面的英文论文3000字
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A jet engine can be divided into several distinct sections: intake, compressor, diffuser, combustion chamber, turbine, and exhaust. These sections are much like the different cycles in a four-stroke reciprocating engine: intake, compression, power and exhaust. In a four-stroke engine a fuel/air mixture is is brought into the engine (intake), compressed (compression), and finally ignited and pushed out the exhaust (power and exhaust). In it's most basic form, a jet engine works in much the same way.
* Air comes in the front of the engine where it enters the compressor. The air is compressed by a series of small spinning blades aptly named compressor blades and leaves at a high pressure. The pressure ratio between the beginning and end of the compressor can be as much as 48:1, but almost always 12:1 or more.
* The air now enters the diffuser, which is nothing more than an area where the air can expand and lower it's velocity, thus increasing its pressure a little bit more.
* The high pressure air at the end of the diffuser now enters the combustion chamber where it is mixed with fuel, ignited and burned.
* When the fuel/air mixture burns, the temperature increases (obviously) which makes the air expand.
* This expanding gas drives a set of turbine blades located aft of the combustion chamber. At least some of these turbine blades are connected by a shaft to the compressor blades to drive them. Depending on the type of engine, there may be another set of turbine blades used to drive another shaft to do other things, such as turn a propeller or generator.
* The left over energy not extracted by the turbine blades is pushed out the back of the engine (exhaust section) and creates thrust, usually used to drive an airplane forward.
The types of jet engines include:
* Turbojet
* Turbofan
* Turboprop
* Turbo shaft
Turbojet
The turbojet is the simplest of them all, it is just as described in "The basics" section. This style was the first type of jet engine to be used in aircraft. It is a pretty primitive style used mostly in early military jet fighters such as the F-86. Its use was discontinued, for the most part, in favor of the more efficient turbofans. Actually, I should clarify that. Each type of engine is most efficient under certain conditions. Turbojets are most efficient at high altitudes and speeds above the speed of sound. See the diagram at the end of this page for relative efficiencies of each style engine.
Turbofan
Turbofans make up the majority of jet engines being produced and used today. A turbofan engine uses an extra set of turbine blades to drive a large fan, typically on the front of the engine. This fan differs from a propeller in that there are many small blades and they are inside of a duct. The fan sits just in front of the normal intake, some of the air driven by this fan will enter the engine, while the rest will go around the outside. The amount of air that bypasses the engine is different for each type of airplane. The different styles are called high and low bypass engines. Bypass ratio is the ratio of how much air goes through the fan, to how much goes through the engine. Typical bypass ratios would be 1:1 for a low bypass and 5:1 or more for a high bypass. Low bypass engines are more efficient at higher speeds, and are used on planes such as military aircraft, while high bypass engines are used in commercial airliners.
Turboprop
Turboprops are similar to turbofans in that they incorporate an extra set of turbine blades used to drive the propeller. Unlike the turbofan engines, nearly all the thrust produced by a turboprop is from the propellor, hardly any thrust comes from the exhaust. These engines are used mostly on smaller and slower planes such as commuter aircraft that fly to the smaller airports. As you can see from the efficiency chart below, turboprops are very efficient over a fairly wide range of speeds. They would probably be used more often on large transport aircraft, except for one problem: they have propellors. The general public does not like propellors, as they appear to be old-fashioned and unsafe. However, the military knows better and uses them on several large transport aircraft.
Turbo shaft
Turbo shaft engines are very similar to turboprop engines, but instead of driving a propellor, they are used to drive something else. Many helicopters use them to drive their rotors, and airliners and other large jets use them to generate electricity. Also, the Alaska Pipeline uses them at the pump stations to pump oil.
Overall
Overall the big difference between these engines is how they take a chunk of air and move it. Newton's third law states that Force equals mass times acceleration. Applying this to turbine engines: the turboprop takes a large chunk and accelerates it a little bit, while the turbojet takes a small chunk and accelerates the heck out of it, and the turbofan is somewhere in between these two.
These different methods of moving air also have to do with how much noise each engine makes. The turbojet makes the most noise because there is a large difference in velocities of the blast of air coming out the exhaust and the surrounding air. The air from the fan on a turbofan engine "shields" the blast in the center by having the slower moving air from the fan surround it. Then the turboprop is the quietest of all because the air it's moving is relatively slow.
A pressure - volume diagram (or a P-V diagram) is a useful tool in thermodynamics. In this case, it relates the pressure and volume of the gas moving through the engine at different stages. A P-V diagram can also be helpful in finding the work output of an engine. Work equals the integral of pressure with respect to volume. Or is simpler form, work equals the area enclosed in the diagram above. The above cycle is the Brayton cycle, or the cycle used by aircraft gas turbine engines.
Explanation of the above cycle:
* Air enters the inlet at point 1 at atmospheric pressure.
* As this air passes through the compressor (from point 1 to 2), the pressure rises adiabatically (no heat enters or leaves the system).
* Now the air enters the combustion chamber (from point 2 to 3), is mixed with fuel, and burned at a constant pressure.
* Finally, the air goes through the turbine and out the exhaust (point 3 to 4) where the gases expand and do work. Thus, the pressure drops and the volume increases.
The Compressor
There are two main styles for turbine compressors: the axial and the centrifugal.
The Axial Compressor
* The axial type compressor is made up of many small blades, called rotor vanes, arranged in rows on a cylinder whose radius gets larger towards the back (as can be seen from the above picture). These blades act much like small propellors.
* In between these rotor vanes are stator vanes which stay in a fixed spot and straighten the air coming out of the previous stage of rotor vanes before it enters the next stage.
* On some newer engines, the angle of these stator vanes can be adjusted for optimum efficiency.
* Each stage (1 row of rotor and stator vanes) generally provides for a pressure rise of about 1.3:1 (so after the first stage, the pressure would be 1.3 above atmospheric, after the second it would be 1.69, 2.2, etc...).
The Centrifugal Compressor
* Air enters the centrifugal compressor at the front and center. The blades then sling the air radially outwards where it is once again collected (at a higher pressure) before it enters the diffuser.
* Pressure rise per stage is usually about 4 to 8:1 (higher than axial). These can be sombined in series (that is the exit of the first leads to the entrance of the next) to produce a greater pressure rise. But more than two stages is not practical.
- Jet engines are rated in "pounds of thrust," while turboprops and turboshaft engines are rated in "shaft horsepower" (SHP). This is because it is difficult to hook up a dynamometer (power measuring device) to the column of air coming out of a jet engine, while it is easy to hook one to the shaft of a turboprop.
- An equivalent measure to horsepower is thrust horsepower (THP). THP = (Thrust x MPH) / 375. or THP = SHP x 80% in the case of turboprop engines (the 80% is because the propeller "slips" a little in flight).
- Exhaust gases exit the exhaust at upwards of 1000 mph or more and can use 1000 gallons of fuel/hour or more.
- Turbine engines run lean. Unlike gasoline engines, turbines take in more air than they need for combustion.
- Fuel can be injected into the exhaust section to burn with this unused air for extra thrust. This is called an afterburner.
- A water/methanol mixture can be injected into the intake to increase the air density, and thus increase thrust.
- Turbine engines can be built on a small scale as well. The turbine pictured below has a diameter of 4mm and runs at 500,000 rpm. It was built by at MIT for purposes of powering an aircraft with a wing span of about 5 inches that was projected to fly about 35 - 70 mph with a range of about 40 - 70 miles.
micro turbine
- The ignition system on turbine engines is only necessary for starting, afterwards it is self sustaining. In jets, the ignition system is also turned on for added saftey in "critical" stages of flight, such as takeoff and landing.
- A device similar to a spark plug is used for the ignition process, but it has a larger gap. The spark is about 4 to 20 Joules (watts/second) at about 25000 volts and occurs between 1 and 2 times per second.
- Turbine engines will run on just about anything, they prefer Jet-A (AKA diesel, kerosene, or home heating oil), but can burn unleaded, burbon, or even very finely powdered coal!
- The above snowmachine uses an Allison turbine engine, a very common engine in helicopters (such as the Bell 206 Jet Ranger shown below). A lot of horsepower can be put into a small package! Note the intake and compressor are at the front of the engine, then the two side tubes take the compressed air and bring it around back to the combustion chamber and turbine and the exhaust exits out the middle. There are many engines out there with strange configurations like this.
Communications Technology
Your Rights and what the Data Protection Commissioner can do to help
Right of Access
The personal information to which you are entitled is that held on
computer or in a manual filing system that facilitates access to
information about you. You can make an access request to any
organisation or any individual who has personal information about you.
For example, you could make an access request to your doctor, your
bank, a credit reference agency, a Government Department dealing with
your affairs, or your employer.
If you find out that information kept about you by someone else is
inaccurate, you have a right to have that information corrected (or
"rectified"). In some circumstances, you may also have the information
erased altogether from the database - for example, if the body keeping
the information has no good reason to hold it (i.e. it is irrelevant
or excessive for the purpose), or if the information has not been
obtained fairly. You can exercise your right of rectification or
erasure simply by writing to the body keeping your data.
In addition, you can request a data controller to block your data i.e.
to prevent it from being used for certain purposes. For example, you
might want your data blocked for research purposes where it held for
other purposes.
If an organisation holds your information for the purposes of direct
marketing (such as direct mailing, or telephone marketing), you have
the right to have your details removed from that database. This right
is useful if you are receiving unwanted "junk mail" or annoying
telephone calls from salespeople. You can exercise this right simply
by writing to the organisation concerned. The organisation must write
back to you within 40 days confirming that they have dealt with your
request.
Right to complain to the Data Protection Commissioner
What happens if someone ignores your access request, or refuses to
correct information about you which is inaccurate? If you are having
difficulty in exercising your rights, or if you feel that any person
or organisation is not complying with their responsibilities, then you
may complain to the Data Protection Commissioner, Mr Mead, who will
investigate the matter for you. The Commissioner has legal powers to
ensure that your rights are upheld.
The Data Protection Commissioner will help you to secure your rights:
* with advice and information
* by intervening directly on your behalf if you feel you have not
been given satisfaction
* by taking action against those failing to fulfil their
obligations.
SEE APPENDIX 2 FOR CASE STUDY
Ergonomics
Ergonomics (from Greek ergon work and nomoi natural laws) is the study
of designing objects to be better adapted to the shape of the human
body and/or to correct the user's posture. Common examples include
chairs designed to prevent the user from sitting in positions that may
have a detrimental effect on the spine, and the ergonomic desk which
offers an adjustable keyboard tray, a main desktop of variable height
and other elements which can be changed by the user.
Ergonomics also helps with the design of alternative computer input
devices for people who want to avoid repetitive strain injury or
carpal tunnel syndrome. A normal computer keyboard tends to force
users to keep their hands together and hunch their shoulders. To
prevent the injuries, or to give relief to people who already have
symptoms, special split keyboards, curved keyboards,
not-really-keyboards keyboards, and other alternative input devices
exist.
Ergonomics is much larger than looking at the physiological and
anatomical aspects of the human being. The psychology of humans is
also a key element within the ergonomics discipline. This
psychological portion of ergonomics is usually referred to as Human
factors or Human factors engineering in the U.S., and ergonomics is
the term used in Europe. Understanding design in terms of cognitive
workload, human error, the way humans perceive their surrounds and,
very importantly, the tasks that they undertake are all analysed by
ergonomists.
[IMAGE]
With video conferencing consideration should be taken in positioning
of camera and screens so as to avoid neck strain.
Codec
1. (COder/DECoder or COmpressor/DECompressor) Hardware or software
that encodes/compresses and decodes/decompresses audio and video
data streams. The purpose of a codec is to reduce the size of
digital audio samples and video frames in order to speed up
transmission and save storage space. The goal of all codec
designers is to maintain audio and video quality while compressing
the binary data further. Speech codecs are designed to deal with
the characteristics of voice, while audio codecs are developed for
music. Codecs may also be able to transcode from one digital
format to another; for example, from PCM audio to MP3 audio.
The codec algorithms may be implemented entirely in a chip or entirely
in software in which case the PC does all of the processing. They are
also commonly implemented in both hardware and software where a sound
card or video capture card performs some of the processing, and the
main CPU does the rest.
When analog signals are entered into a computer, cellphone or other
device via a microphone or video source such as a VHS tape or TV,
analog-to-digital converters create the raw digital audio samples and
video frames. Speech, audio and video codecs are typically lossy
codecs that compress data by altering the original format, which is
why "codec" means "encoder/decoder" and "compressor/decompressor." If
a codec uses only lossless compression in which the original data is
restored exactly, then it would not be a coder/decoder. This is a
subtle point, but the two meanings of the acronym have been confusing.
LAN
A local area network (LAN) is a computer network covering a local
area, like a home, office or small group of buildings such as a
college. The topology of a network dictates its physical structure.
The generally accepted maximum size for a LAN is 1000m2. LANs are
different from personal area networks (PANs), metropolitan area
networks (MANs) or wide area networks (WANs). LANs are typically
faster than WANs.
The earliest popular LAN, ARCnet, was released in 1977 by Datapoint
and was originally intended to allow multiple Datapoint 2200s to share
disk storage. Like all early LANs, ARCnet was originally
vendor-specific. Standardization efforts by the IEEE have resulted in
the IEEE 802 series of standards. There are now two common wiring
technologies for a LAN, Ethernet and Token Ring. Wireless technologies
are starting to evolve and are convenient for mobile computer users.
A number of network protocols may use the basic physical transport
mechanism including TCP/IP. In this case DHCP is a convenient way to
obtain an IP address rather than using fixed addressing. LANs can be
interlinked by connections to form a Wide area network. A router is
used to make the connection between LANs.
WAN
WANs are used to connect local area networks together, so that users
and computers in one location can communicate with users and computers
in other locations. Many WANs are built for one particular
organisation and are private, others, built by Internet service
providers provide connections from an organisation's LAN to the
Internet. WANs are most often built of leased lines. At each end of
the leased line, a router connects to the LAN on one side and a hub
within the WAN on the other. A number of network protocols may use the
basic physical transport mechanism including TCP/IP. Other protocols
including X.25 and ATM. Frame relay can also be used for WANs.
Ethernet
Ethernet is normally a shared media LAN. All stations on the segment
share the total bandwidth, which is either 10 Mbps (Ethernet), 100
Mbps (Fast Ethernet) or 1000 Mbps (Gigabit Ethernet). With switched
Ethernet, each sender and receiver pair have the full bandwidth.When
using Ethernet the computers are usually wired to a hub or to a switch.
This constitutes the physical transport mechanism.
Fiber-optic Ethernet (10BaseF and 100BaseFX) is impervious to external
radiation and is often used to extend Ethernet segments up to 1.2
miles. Specifications exist for complete fiber-optic networks as well
as backbone implementations. FOIRL (Fiber-Optic Inter Repeater Link)
was an earlier standard that is limited to .6 miles distance.
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